ФАКТОРЫ РИСКА ПОЧЕЧНО-КЛЕТОЧНОГО РАКА

Smoking, overweight, obesity, hypertension, occupational exposures to pesticides, specifically to trichloroethylene are considered causal risk factors for sporadic i.e. non-hereditary renal cell cancer (RCC). Some of these factors not only increase the risk of RCC but also affect the survival of patients. For example, in patients with RCC who continue smoking, the risk of dying from other causes is twice as high as in patient who quit smoking. The risk of second cancer is 5 times higher in patients who continue smoking 20 or more cigarettes per day than in non-smokers. The low penetrance polymorphism is an important factor in etiology of sporadic RCC, which contrary to high penetrance mutations is a common event. However, the risk associated with this type of inheritance is quite low. The majority of sporadic RCC have polygenic etiology. They develop as a result of combined effect of large number of low penetrance genetic susceptibility genes (genetic polymorphism). Environmental factors play a decisive role in causation of sporadic RCC. The interplay of exposures to environmental risk factors and genetic susceptibility of exposed individuals is believed to influence the risk of developing sporadic RCC. The studies in molecular epidemiology based on candidate gene approach have shown that polymorphisms of certain genes, for example glutathione-S-transferase family genes, are associated with RCC. The genome wide association studies identified about twenty loci with single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) affecting the risk of RCC. However the risk loci so far identified for RCC account for only about 10 % of the familial risk of RCC. The power of largest studies which include many thousands of observations allow to detect 80 % of the major common loci (with minor allele frequency – MAF>0.2) conferring risk ≥1.2. However, for detecting alleles with smaller effects and/or MAF<0.1, more studies with larger sample size are needed. By implication, variants with such profiles probably represent a much larger class of susceptibility loci for RCC and hence a large number of variants remain to be discovered. Future investigation of the genes targeted by the risk SNPs is likely to yield increased insight into biology of RCC and will lead to new approaches for prevention, early detection and treatment.Доказанными факторами риска спонтанного, т.е. не наследственного, почечно-клеточного рака (ПКР) являются курение, избыточный вес, ожирение, гипертония, некоторые профессиональные факторы, экспозиция к пестицидам и трихлорэтилену. Факторы образа жизни, например курение, не только повышают риск развития ПКР, но и влияют на выживаемость больных с этим заболеванием. Так, например, риск смерти от неонкологических причин у продолжающих курить больных ПКР в два раза выше по сравнению с никогда не курившими больными, a риск развития второй опухоли у продолжавших курить больных ПКР более 20 сигарет в день в 5 раз выше, чем у некурящих пациентов. В этиологии спонтанного ПКР важную роль играет низкопенетрантный генетический полиморфизм, который в отличие от высокопенетрантных мутаций встречается довольно часто. Однако риск развития рака, ассоциированный с этим типом наследственности, невысок. Тем не менее большинство опухолей человека развиваются в результате комбинированного эффекта большого числа генов с низкой пенетрацией, т.е. имеют полигенную этиологию. В этиологии этих опухолей важную роль играют экзогенные факторы: имеет место взаимодействие наследственности и факторов образа жизни и окружающей среды. Молекулярно-эпидемиологические исследования, основанные на предварительной гипотезе, показали, что полиморфизм некоторых генов, например семейства глутатион-S-трансфераз, влияет на риск ПКР. В результате полногеномных исследований идентифицированы около 20 однонуклеотидных полиморфизмов (ОНП) высокого риска, которые, впрочем, объясняют лишь 10 % риска семейных случаев ПКР. Размер самых крупных исследований, которые включают многие тысячи наблюдений, позволяет выявить лишь 80 % от основных, часто встречающихся аллельных вариантов (с частотой минорных аллелей >0,2), которые повышают риск ПКР в 1,2 и более раз. В то же время для выявления полиморфных вариантов с меньшим эффектом на риск ПКР, с частотой минорных аллелей <0,1, размер выборки должен быть значительно больше. Скорее всего, этот тип вариантов содержит больше ОНП повышенной предрасположенности к развитию ПКР и их предстоит открыть. Будущие исследования, направленные на идентификацию однонуклеотидных полиморфизмов высокого риска, приведут к лучшему пониманию биологии ПКР и будут способствовать разработке новых направлений профилактики, ранней диагностики и лечения этого заболевания

Отказ от курения после постановки диагноза рака легкого улучшает прогноз заболевания

Abstract: The presented clinical and epidemiological study is the world»s first large prospective study of the effect of smoking cessation after lung cancer (LC) diagnosis on the prognosis. Follow‑up of 517 patients with NSCLC for 7 years in average showed that continued smoking after diagnosis is a serious negative prognostic factor. At the same time smoking cessation improves OS and PFS by 22,6 months and specific cancer mortality by 22,8 months; reduces the risk of all‑cause mortality by 33 %, the risk of progression by 30 % and the risk of specific cancer mortality by 25 %. Almost 60 % of patients in our study continued smoking after diagnosis. Consequently, they had avoidable excess mortality which eventually reduced their life by 2 years.The positive effect of smoking cessation after diagnosis found in our study significantly exceeds the «meaningful benefit» (improvement in median overall survival by 2,5–6 months) for antineoplastic agents proposed by the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO). Moreover, the study suggests that the benefits of smoking cessation after LC diagnosis are at least equal or superior to the significant results obtained in clinical studies of the effectiveness of innovative treatments.We hope that the results of our study will contribute to the inclusion of smoking cessation in clinical guidelines for the treatment of NSCLC and other cancers. The treatment program for cancer patients should include evidence‑based methods of smoking cessation presented in the form of «Clinical Guidelines for Smoking Cessation for Cancer Patients».Treating smoking in cancer patients is cost‑effective for the health care system, especially when compared to other treat‑ments. Conversely, continuing smoking after diagnosis significantly increases treatment costs.The introduction of recommendations on smoking cessation and treatment of nicotine addiction into the practice will improve the overall mortality rate by 30–35 % in more than 60,000 patients annually diagnosed with lung cancer in Russia. The clinical value of this method is obvious, since it has been proven to be highly efficient in improving the life expectancy of patients, and, ultimately, in reducing cancer mortality in Russia.Аннотация: Представленное клинико-эпидемиологическое исследование — первое в мире крупное проспективное исследование, в котором изучался эффект отказа от курения после постановки диагноза рака легкого (РЛ) на прогноз.Прослеживание 517 пациентов с НМКРЛ в течение 7 лет в среднем показало, что продолжение курения после постановки диагноза — очень серьезный негативный прогностический фактор. В то же время отказ от курения улучшает общую выживаемость (ОВ) и выживаемость без прогрессирования (ВБП) на 22,6 месяцев и снижает специфическую онкологическую смертность на 22,8 месяцев; также отмечено снижение риска смертности от всех причин на 33%, риска прогрессирования — на 30% и риска специфической онкологической смертности — на 25%. В нашей когорте почти 60% больных после постановки диагноза продолжали курить. Среди них имела место предотвратимая избыточная смертность, которая в результате сократила им жизнь на 2 года.Полученный в нашей работе положительный эффект отказа от курения после постановки диагноза значительно превосходит «значимую пользу» (meaningful benefit) — достижение медианы улучшения общей выживаемости в пределах 2,5–6 месяцев для противоопухолевых препаратов, предложенную Американским обществом клинических онкологов (ASCO). Более того, из исследования следует, что польза отказа от курения после постановки диагноза РЛ, как минимум, равнозначна, или превосходит значимые результаты, полученные в клинических исследованиях эффективности инновационных методов лечения РЛ.Мы надеемся, что результаты нашего исследования будут способствовать включению отказа от курения в клинические рекомендации по лечению НМРЛ и других онкологических заболеваний. Программа лечения онкологических больных должна включать научно обоснованные методы отказа от курения, представленные в виде «Клинических рекомендаций по отказу от курения для онкологических больных».Лечение табакокурения у пациентов с онкологическим диагнозом экономически выгодно для системы здравоохранения, особенно по сравнению с другими методами лечения. И, наоборот, продолжение курения после диагноза значительно увеличивает траты на лечение.Внедрение в практику лечения больных с диагнозом РЛ рекомендаций по отказу от курения и лечению никотиновой зависимости на 30–35% улучшит показатель общей смертности у более 60 000 больных РЛ, диагностируемых ежегодно в России. Очевидна клиническая ценность этого метода, с доказанной высокой эффективностью в улучшении продолжительности жизни больных, а в конечном итоге — снижении смертности от рака в России

Investigation of occupational and environmental causes of respiratory cancers (ICARE): a multicenter, population-based case-control study in France

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Occupational causes of respiratory cancers need to be further investigated: the role of occupational exposures in the aetiology of head and neck cancers remains largely unknown, and there are still substantial uncertainties for a number of suspected lung carcinogens. The main objective of the study is to examine occupational risk factors for lung and head and neck cancers.</p> <p>Methods/design</p> <p>ICARE is a multi-center, population-based case-control study, which included a group of 2926 lung cancer cases, a group of 2415 head and neck cancer cases, and a common control group of 3555 subjects. Incident cases were identified in collaboration with cancer registries, in 10 geographical areas. The control group was a random sample of the population of these areas, with a distribution by sex and age comparable to that of the cases, and a distribution by socioeconomic status comparable to that of the population. Subjects were interviewed face to face, using a standardized questionnaire collecting particularly information on tobacco and alcohol consumption, residential history and a detailed description of occupational history. Biological samples were also collected from study subjects. The main occupational exposures of interest are asbestos, man-made mineral fibers, formaldehyde, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, chromium and nickel compounds, arsenic, wood dust, textile dust, solvents, strong acids, cutting fluids, silica, diesel fumes, welding fumes. The complete list of exposures of interest includes more than 60 substances. Occupational exposure assessment will use several complementary methods: case-by-case evaluation of exposure by experts; development and use of algorithms to assess exposure from the questionnaires; application of job-exposure matrices.</p> <p>Discussion</p> <p>The large number of subjects should allow to uncover exposures associated with moderate increase in risks, and to evaluate risks associated with infrequent or widely dispersed exposures. It will be possible to study joint effects of exposure to different occupational risk factors, to examine the interactions between occupational exposures, tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, and genetic risk factors, and to estimate the proportion of respiratory cancers attributable to occupational exposures in France. In addition, information on many non-occupational risk factors is available, and the study will provide an excellent framework for numerous studies in various fields.</p

Прогностическая роль экспрессии маркера PBRM1 при светлоклеточном раке почки

Background. Clear-cell renal-cell carcinoma (CCRCC) is the most common histological type of cancer of this localization. Changes in 16 genes were identified as significant in carcinogenesis of CCRCC. After VHL suppressor gene, PBRM1 gene is the second by frequency of genetic abnormalities in CCRCC and it is mutated in 40—50 % cases of CCRCC.The study objectiveis to analyze the effect of abnormalities in PBRM1 protein expression on survival of patients with CCRCC.Materials and methods. The study included 137patients with newly diagnosed and histologically confirmed CCRCC. For all study participant, detailed medical history and questionnaire data were acquired. Prior to treatment, blood samples and tumor tissue removed during surgery were obtainedfrom all patients. All patients are annually followed up for current information on their life status, disease dynamics, treatment. Minimalfollow-up time is 22 months, maximal is 128 months, mean is 61.8 months, median is 48 months. Immunohistochemical (IHC) testing of PBRM1 expression was performed using standard technique with polyclonal rabbit antibodies PB1[N1N2] N-term (GeneTex 100781) with 1:50 dilution, DAB staining. Normally, protein product of the wild type PBRM1 gene is functioning and can be detected in the nucleus. Absence of nuclear expression of PBRM1 points to genetic or epigenetic abnormalities.Results.Renal cancer-specific survival is significantly lower in patients without expression of the PRBM1 protein in tumor cells. The longest 5- (84 %) and 10-year (84 %) survival was observed in patients with diffuse nuclear expression of the PBRM1 protein. Difference in survival of these patients compared to patients without PRBM1 protein expression is statistically significant (p = 0.004). We have performed an analysis of the association between survival of patients with CCRCC andfocal nuclear PBRM1 expression. In these patients, survival is lower than in patients with diffuse expression but higher than in patients without nuclear expression of PBRM1 (p = 0.02). Cytoplasmic expression of PBRM1 doesn’t affect survival.Conclusion.The obtained results point to prognostic value of PBRM1 gene activity which is abnormal in almost half of all CCRCC cases. IHC testing is an appropriate, reliable and affordable method for determination of PBRM1 protein expression and therefore can be used in practice. Favorable course and prognosis in patients with stage I—II CCRCC and preserved nuclear expression of the PBRM1 protein should be noted: 5-year survival for these patients is 100 %. This observation is crucial for making decisions on treatment of these patients.Введение. Светлоклеточный почечно-клеточный рак (скПКР) является наиболее частым гистологическим типом рака этой локализации. Выделяют 16 генов, нарушения которых играют значительную роль в канцерогенезе скПКР. Вторым по частоте генетических нарушений в скПКР после гена-супрессора VHL является ген PBRM1, который мутирует в 40—50 % случаев скПКР.Цель исследования — анализ влияния нарушений экспрессии белка PBRM1 на выживаемость пациентов со скПКР.Материалы и методы. В исследование были включены 137пациентов с впервые выявленным и гистологически верифицированным диагнозом скПКР. Для каждого участника исследования были собраны детальная медицинская информация и данные анкетирования. От всех больных до начала лечения были получены образцы крови и удаленной во время хирургической операции опухолевой ткани. Все пациенты ежегодно прослеживаются в целях получения актуальной информации об их жизненном статусе, динамике заболевания, лечении. Минимальное время прослеживания — 22мес, максимальное — 128мес, среднее — 61,8мес, медиана — 48мес. Иммуногистохимическое (ИГХ) исследование экспрессии PBRM1 было выполнено по стандартной методике c поликлональными кроличьими антителами PB1[N1N2] N-term (GeneTex 100781) в разведении 1:50, проявление проводилось с использованием DAB. Белковый продукт гена PBRM1 дикого типа в норме функционирует и выявляется в ядре. Отсутствие ядерной экспрессии PBRM1 указывает на генетические или эпигенетические нарушения.Результаты. Специфическая для рака почки выживаемость статистически достоверно ниже у больных, в опухолевых клетках которых нет экспрессии белка PRBM1. Наилучшая 5- (84 %) и 10-летняя (84 %) выживаемость отмечена у больных с диф­фузной ядерной экспрессией белка PBRM1. Различия в выживаемости этих больных и тех, у которых нет экспрессии белка PBRM1, статистически высоко достоверны (р = 0,004). Нами впервые проведен анализ выживаемости больных скПКР с фо­кальной ядерной экспрессией PBRM1. У этих пациентов выживаемость ниже, чем у больных с диффузной экспрессией, но выше, чем у больных с отсутствием ядерной экспрессии PBRM1 (р = 0,02). Цитоплазматическая экспрессия PBRM1 на выживаемость не влияет.Заключение. Таким образом, полученные нами результаты указывают на прогностическую значимость активности гена PBRM1, нарушение функции которого встречается почти в половине случаев скПКР. ИГХ-исследование является адекватным, надежным и доступным методом для определения экспрессии белка PBRM1 и, соответственно, может применяться на практике. Особен­но следует отметить благоприятное течение и прогноз болезни у пациентов с I—II стадиями скПКР, у которых сохранена ядер­ная экспрессия белка PBRM1: 5-летняя выживаемость у них составляет 100 %. Это наблюдение крайне важно для принятия решения по тактике лечения таких больных

Joint effects of intensity and duration of cigarette smoking on the risk of head and neck cancer: A bivariate spline model approach

Objectives: This study aimed at re-evaluating the strength and shape of the dose-response relationship between the combined (or joint) effect of intensity and duration of cigarette smoking and the risk of head and neck cancer (HNC). We explored this issue considering bivariate spline models, where smoking intensity and duration were treated as interacting continuous exposures. Materials and Methods: We pooled individual-level data from 33 case-control studies (18,260 HNC cases and 29,844 controls) participating in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) consortium. In bivariate regression spline models, exposures to cigarette smoking intensity and duration (compared with never smokers) were modeled as a linear piecewise function within a logistic regression also including potential confounders. We jointly estimated the optimal knot locations and regression parameters within the Bayesian framework. Results: For oral-cavity/pharyngeal (OCP) cancers, an odds ratio (OR) &gt;5 was reached after 30 years in current smokers of ∼20 or more cigarettes/day. Patterns of OCP cancer risk in current smokers differed across strata of alcohol intensity. For laryngeal cancer, ORs &gt;20 were found for current smokers of ≥20 cigarettes/day for ≥30 years. In former smokers who quit ≥10 years ago, the ORs were approximately halved for OCP cancers, and ∼1/3 for laryngeal cancer, as compared to the same levels of intensity and duration in current smokers. Conclusion: Referring to bivariate spline models, this study better quantified the joint effect of intensity and duration of cigarette smoking on HNC risk, further stressing the need of smoking cessation policies

Спектр мутаций гена VHL при спорадическом светлоклеточном почечно-клеточном раке

The VHL gene alterations are the early and characteristic feature of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). We have examined VHL mutations in sporadic 98 ccRCC cases to evaluate their localization in relation to functionally important motifs of the VHL protein. The DNA samples were obtained from snap-frozen carcinoma biopsies and used for Sanger sequencing, while 62 ccRCC DNA cases were studied by next generation sequencing (NGS) analysis in parallel. In 73 (74.4 %) оf 98 ccRCC cases the somatic non-silent VHL mutations were identified. Loss of function VHL mutations (nonsilent, frameshifts or in splicing sites) were detected in 40 (40.8 %) ccRCC, while missense mutations – in 35 (35.7 %) ccRCC. In total 76 mutations important for VHL functioning were detected in 72 (73 %) ccRCC samples, of them 15 mutations (deletion / insertion in-frame or frameshifts) were identified for the first time. Four ccRCC cases contained two mutations each. Most of missense mutations disturb the sites of VHL interactions with HIF, РКС or kinesin. The pathogenicity of p.P154P silent mutation and intronic mutations near mRNA VHL splicing sites was discussed. The obtained results are important for understanding the role of VHL mutations in ccRCC progression and prognosis.Нарушения гена VHL являются ранней и характерной особенностью светлоклеточного почечно-клеточного рака (скПКР). Проведен анализ мутаций VHL в 98 образцах скПКР для определения их локализации относительно функционально значимых мотивов белка VHL. Анализ мутаций VHL проводили в ДНК из свежезамороженных тканей опухоли секвенированием по Сэнгеру, параллельно 62 образца скПКР подвергли cеквенированию нового поколения (next generation sequencing, NGS). В 73 (74,4 %) из 98 образцов скПКР обнаружены нон-сайлент-мутации в кодирующей части гена VHL. Мутации, нарушающие функции белка VHL (нонсенс-мутации, мутации в сайтах сплайсинга и делеции / инсерции со сдвигом рамки считывания), выявлены в 40 (40,8 %) образцах скПКР, миссенс-мутации – в 35 (35,7 %). Всего обнаружено 76 мутаций, влияющих на функции белка VHL в 72 (73 %) образцах скПКР, причем 15 мутаций не были описаны ранее (делеции / инсерции VHL со сдвигом или без сдвига рамки считывания). В 4 случаях скПКР выявлено по 2 мутации VHL. Большинство миссенс-мутаций нарушают сайты взаимодействия белка VHL с HIF, РKС или кинезином. Рассмотрен вопрос о патогенности сайлент-мутации p.P154P и мутаций в интронах вблизи сайтов сплайсинга. Полученные результаты важны для изучения роли мутаций VHL в прогрессировании и прогнозе скПКР

Transoral laser microsurgery for laryngeal cancer: A primer and review of laser dosimetry

Transoral laser microsurgery (TLM) is an emerging technique for the management of laryngeal and other head and neck malignancies. It is increasingly being used in place of traditional open surgery because of lower morbidity and improved organ preservation. Since the surgery is performed from the inside working outward as opposed to working from the outside in, there is less damage to the supporting structures that lie external to the tumor. Coupling the laser to a micromanipulator and a microscope allows precise tissue cutting and hemostasis; thereby improving visualization and precise ablation. The basic approach and principles of performing TLM, the devices currently in use, and the associated dosimetry parameters will be discussed. The benefits of using TLM over conventional surgery, common complications and the different settings used depending on the location of the tumor will also be discussed. Although the CO2 laser is the most versatile and the best-suited laser for TLM applications, a variety of lasers and different parameters are used in the treatment of laryngeal cancer. Improved instrumentation has lead to an increased utilization of TLM by head and neck cancer surgeons and has resulted in improved outcomes. Laser energy levels and spot size are adjusted to vary the precision of cutting and amount of hemostasis obtained

Genome-wide association analyses identify new susceptibility loci for oral cavity and pharyngeal cancer

We conducted a genome-wide association study of oral cavity and pharyngeal cancer in 6,034 cases and 6,585 controls from Europe, North America and South America. We detected eight significantly associated loci (P < 5 x 10(-8)), seven of which are new for these cancer sites. Oral and pharyngeal cancers combined were associated with loci at 6p21.32 (rs3828805, HLA-DQB1), 10q26.13 (rs201982221, LHPP) and 11p15.4 (rs1453414, OR52N2-TRIM5). Oral cancer was associated with two new regions, 2p23.3 (rs6547741, GPN1) and 9q34.12 (rs928674, LAMC3), and with known cancer-related loci-9p21.3 (rs8181047, CDKN2B-AS1) and 5p15.33 (rs10462706, CLPTM1L). Oropharyngeal cancer associations were limited to the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) region, and classical HLA allele imputation showed a protective association with the class II haplotype HLA-DRB1*1301-HLA-DQA1*0103-HLA-DQB1*0603 (odds ratio (OR) = 0.59, P = 2.7 x 10(-9)). Stratified analyses on a subgroup of oropharyngeal cases with information available on human papillomavirus (HPV) status indicated that this association was considerably stronger in HPV-positive (OR = 0.23, P = 1.6 x 10(-6)) than in HPV-negative (OR = 0.75, P = 0.16) cancers

Genome-wide association analyses identify new susceptibility loci for oral cavity and pharyngeal cancer.

We conducted a genome-wide association study of oral cavity and pharyngeal cancer in 6,034 cases and 6,585 controls from Europe, North America and South America. We detected eight significantly associated loci (P &lt; 5 × 10−8), seven of which are new for these cancer sites. Oral and pharyngeal cancers combined were associated with loci at 6p21.32 (rs3828805, HLA-DQB1), 10q26.13 (rs201982221, LHPP) and 11p15.4 (rs1453414, OR52N2–TRIM5). Oral cancer was associated with two new regions, 2p23.3 (rs6547741, GPN1) and 9q34.12 (rs928674, LAMC3), and with known cancer-related loci—9p21.3 (rs8181047, CDKN2B-AS1) and 5p15.33 (rs10462706, CLPTM1L). Oropharyngeal cancer associations were limited to the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) region, and classical HLA allele imputation showed a protective association with the class II haplotype HLA-DRB1*1301–HLA-DQA1*0103–HLA-DQB1*0603 (odds ratio (OR) = 0.59, P = 2.7 × 10−9). Stratified analyses on a subgroup of oropharyngeal cases with information available on human papillomavirus (HPV) status indicated that this association was considerably stronger in HPV-positive (OR = 0.23, P = 1.6 × 10−6) than in HPV-negative (OR = 0.75, P = 0.16) cancers

RISK FACTORS FOR RENAL CELL CARCINOMA

Smoking, overweight, obesity, hypertension, occupational exposures to pesticides, specifically to trichloroethylene are considered causal risk factors for sporadic i.e. non-hereditary renal cell cancer (RCC). Some of these factors not only increase the risk of RCC but also affect the survival of patients. For example, in patients with RCC who continue smoking, the risk of dying from other causes is twice as high as in patient who quit smoking. The risk of second cancer is 5 times higher in patients who continue smoking 20 or more cigarettes per day than in non-smokers. The low penetrance polymorphism is an important factor in etiology of sporadic RCC, which contrary to high penetrance mutations is a common event. However, the risk associated with this type of inheritance is quite low. The majority of sporadic RCC have polygenic etiology. They develop as a result of combined effect of large number of low penetrance genetic susceptibility genes (genetic polymorphism). Environmental factors play a decisive role in causation of sporadic RCC. The interplay of exposures to environmental risk factors and genetic susceptibility of exposed individuals is believed to influence the risk of developing sporadic RCC. The studies in molecular epidemiology based on candidate gene approach have shown that polymorphisms of certain genes, for example glutathione-S-transferase family genes, are associated with RCC. The genome wide association studies identified about twenty loci with single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) affecting the risk of RCC. However the risk loci so far identified for RCC account for only about 10 % of the familial risk of RCC. The power of largest studies which include many thousands of observations allow to detect 80 % of the major common loci (with minor allele frequency – MAF&gt;0.2) conferring risk ≥1.2. However, for detecting alleles with smaller effects and/or MAF&lt;0.1, more studies with larger sample size are needed. By implication, variants with such profiles probably represent a much larger class of susceptibility loci for RCC and hence a large number of variants remain to be discovered. Future investigation of the genes targeted by the risk SNPs is likely to yield increased insight into biology of RCC and will lead to new approaches for prevention, early detection and treatment